The importance of fungi and virus in food microbiology

One approach for this last route uses bacteria as carriers of a DNA plasmid to target specific cells and activate receptors of pathogen-associated molecular patterns Becker et al. These vaccines are still under clinical testing, and microbiological research efforts have focused on HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, and HPV. Recombinant gene vaccines are prepared from viruses engineered to carry genes encoding antigens from other disease-causing viruses for expression in the host after inoculation.

This expression induces antibody production and immunization. The immunity induced by recombinant vaccines is usually attributed to the ability of the recombinant virus to express the gene of interest at high levels within the host cells. The viral vectors used for this purpose are attenuated to the host and are therefore intrinsically safe.

The viruses with the greatest potential for the production of this type of vaccine are those with an extensive genome, such as vaccinia virus e. In the manufacture of such vaccines, all genes that are not essential for replication are first eliminated from the virus.

Subsequently, the genes of the other virus are introduced. Recombinant vaccines are not yet available clinically but are quite promising. Recently, the incorporation of biotechnological techniques has allowed wide access to numerous monoclonal antibodies mAbs.

Human virus-neutralizing MAbs have already been isolated from non-immune and immune sources using a range of newly developed antibody isolation technologies. One such technology employs microorganisms, such as phages, yeasts, bacteria, and viruses, to display repertoires of single-chain variable-domain antibody fragments ScFvs , antigen-binding fragments Fab , or domain antibodies Dabs on their surfaces Carter, These antibodies can also be obtained directly from memory B cells of viral-infected patients or even from mouse lymphocyte cells Marasco and Sui, These antibodies have also been used for the treatment of infectious diseases.

Recently, two antibodies were approved for this purpose: palivizumab, a human respiratory syncytial virus RSV -neutralizing monoclonal antibody that blocks virus replication; and raxibacumab, which prevents binding of the protective antigen of the anthrax toxin to its receptors in host cells The IMpact-RSV Study Group, ; Kummerfeldt, ; Baldo, MAbs represent one of the largest classes of drugs in development, and between and , 17 of the 54 protein drugs approved were mAbs These drugs therefore provide a new and promising way of thinking about the treatment of diseases caused by microorganisms.

In addition to increasing progress in the production of vaccines and MAbs, technological advances have also increased the availability of new drugs, such as antibiotics and hormones.

The boom of antibiotic discovery occurred between and However, despite the need for new antibiotics, only two new classes of antibiotics have been introduced in medicine since , both of which are based on nalidixic acid Brito and Cordeiro, Limited research results, inappropriate prescription of antibiotics, and misuse of antibiotics by the general population have threatened antibiotic potency and increased the occurrence of superbugs, i.

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that antibiotic-resistant bacteria infect more than two million people annually Nizet, In this country alone, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA accounts for approximately 10, cases of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections, whereas Clostridium difficile , associated with diarrhea, is the most common infection in the United States, with more than 80, estimated annual cases Magill et al.

Many multi-antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacilli also fit the description of superbugs, such as P. Recently, Ling et al. Hence, chemicals produced naturally by the microorganisms could be tested, such as teixobactin, the first compound of a new important class of antibiotics.

Teixobactin is capable of eliminating MRSA, and bacteria are believed not to be susceptible to developing resistance to teixobactin, which targets the lipids essential for the maintenance of the bacterial cell wall Borghesi and Stronati, Thus, biotechnological alternatives have been developed to circumvent the problem of the low rate of discovery of new antibiotic molecules.

A study showed that SeNPs attach to the bacterial cell wall, causing irreversible damage to the membrane, thus achieving a remarkable synergistic antibacterial effect that inhibits MRSA Huang X. The use of recombinant microbial cells has allowed large-scale production of a large number of products of pharmaceutical interest, such as hormones, anticoagulants, high-value proteins, antibodies or antigens, and others.

This has been crucial in determining the structure-function relation of proteins, as well as for developing a better understanding of immune system reactions, cell biology, and signaling events. The major microorganisms explored as biofactories are the bacterium E. In the early s, the FDA approved the clinical use of human insulin, obtained by heterologous expression via E.

Since then, the improvement of new heterologous protein production systems via E. This production method is due to the unusual physiology of the cells as well as the ease of genetically manipulating them, but the understanding is that it is possible, by adding heterologous reactions, to synthesize 1, non-native products from E.

Among the latter are 4-hydroxybenzoate, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, which are precursors common to a large number of non-native commercial products Zhang et al. By contrast, the products of heterologous proteins obtained from S. Prokaryotic production systems are required whenever the recombinant proteins are smaller or do not require post-translational modifications PTMs , such as glycosylation, phosphorylation, or proteolytic cleavage.

However, production in yeasts, such as S. Modified strains of S. Further manipulations of these species are expected to create strains capable of producing a wide variety of non-native commercial products.

Filamentous fungi, used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine, have also been evaluated for the potential production of biopharmaceuticals. Polysaccharides of secondary metabolites can be obtained using Ganoderma lucidum, Cordyceps sinensis , and C.

Endophytic fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae and C. The great diversity of molecules produced by filamentous fungi justifies the exploration of these microorganisms, and therefore, the development of production systems in bioreactors has been encouraged. A large number of substances with nanomedical application have emerged, including polymers, metallic nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, VLPs, virions or virion components, and a growing diversity of self-organized protein materials, some with adjustable biomechanical properties such as stiffness, elasticity, adhesion or controllable disintegration or release of incorporated functional blocks or conventional chemical drugs Rodriguez-Carmona and Villaverde, Obviously, the success of the use of microbial nanoparticles in nanotechnology and nanomedicine depends on the identification of new species of microorganisms and on the knowledge of the microbial interactions that occur in natural environments that can lead to the discovery of new molecules Bajaj et al.

Because they require original research and development, and because they propose alternative methods of administration such as dermatological applications and inhaled formulations in order to minimize biological instability, biobetters still have significantly higher costs compared to reference biopharmaceutical versions Mitragotri et al.

However, the future popularization of protein engineering techniques, especially site-directed mutagenesis SDM , which allows the substitution, elimination or insertion of one or more amino acids in the sequence of a protein, is expected to enable the availability of less expensive biobetters, which are the main growing class of biopharmaceuticals Courtois et al. The application of biotechnological techniques to microbiology has also made it possible to obtain a great diversity of biomaterials and biosensors.

Biomaterials are artificial or natural products, usually synthesized by microorganisms in different environmental conditions, that can act in biological systems tissues or organs.

An important family of biomaterials includes the bioplastics. Bioplastics are polyesters that accumulate intracellularly in microorganisms in the form of storage granules, with physicochemical properties similar to petrochemical plastics.

However, these properties, as well as the monomeric composition, can be altered according to the microbial origin of the bioplastic, and the main interest in these polymers lies in their biodegradability and biocompatibility Luengo et al. Bioplastic can also be produced as a byproduct of biorefinery using acidogenic fermentation or pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, as well as a by-product of the biotreatment of solid or liquid wastes Ivanov and Stabnikov, Bioplastics are being used in the manufacture of high-value-added medical materials, such as films that function as vehicles for drug delivery Awadhiya et al.

Bioplastic formulations were recently tested for seed coating of agronomic species. These coatings, which contain spores of growth promoters such as T. Bioplastics also have the potential to lead to the rise, within civil construction, of materials that have low incorporated energy, contributing to energy efficiency Ivanov and Stabnikov, Polysaccharides of microbial origin, such as chitosan, alginate, xanthan gum, and cellulose, are another class of biomaterials that have gained considerable interest for medical use because of their properties, including that they are renewable, biodegradable, and mimic the components of the extracellular matrix, which make them key elements in biological processes Pires and Moraes, ; Pires et al.

Chitosan can be easily recovered from the cell wall of fungi such as A. Specific interactions with extracellular matrix components allow the use of chitosan in the field of tissue engineering to repair skin, bone, and cartilage Khor and Lim, The potential of fungal chitosan, when present in bioactive filters, to chelate heavy metals and inhibit pathogenic microbial agents in contaminated water was recently evaluated e. Alginate is a polysaccharide synthesized by several genera of brown algae and two genera of bacteria: Pseudomonas and Azotobacter Hay et al.

Its properties have broadened its use in the encapsulation or controlled release of drugs, enzymes, or cells, or as a matrix for tissue engineering Andersen et al. When mixed in the aqueous phase, alginate and chitosan combine spontaneously by strong electrostatic attraction, forming a polyelectrolyte complex PEC that may be employed for the production of thin, transparent membranes that allow good absorption of physiological fluids, as well as the incorporation of several bioactive compounds Pires and Moraes, Xanthan gum is also a good alternative for combination with chitosan, forming a complex used in the immobilization of enzymes and in the production of microparticles and membranes Bejenariu et al.

This exopolysaccharide is commercially synthesized by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris , using different carbon sources Barua et al. Cellulose synthesized in abundance by bacteria such as Gluconacetobacter xylinus e. These devices include dialysis membranes and scaffolds for tissue engineering Svensson et al. Microbial cellulose has great potential for the treatment of skin lesions and replacement of small-diameter blood vessels Czaja et al.

The focus on microorganisms as an alternative in the production of biosensors is mainly due to the ability to produce them massively through cell culture Su et al. In addition, the recombinant DNA technique has facilitated the availability of microbial biosensors in the market, providing a new direction to manipulate their selectivity and sensitivity at the DNA level.

This technique consists of the construction of recombinant microbial strains that contain a reporter gene lux , GFP, or lac Z , i. An example of a microbial biosensor currently being used for pollutant monitoring purposes consists of immobilized recombinant E.

The OPH catalyzes the hydrolysis of organophosphorus pesticides releasing protons, whose concentration is proportional to the amount of substrate analyzed Mulchandani et al. Recently, E. These biosensors showed high specificity for the detection of heavy metals Kim K. Bioluminescent E. In addition to the use of E. Despite the great leap forward made by biotechnology in the area of microbial biosensor development, many challenges still need to be overcome. New microorganisms still need to be evaluated for efficiency, more precise methods for immobilizing microbial cells still need to be developed, and the induction techniques need to be continuously evaluated because they may vary in terms of their efficiency depending on the analyte.

Therefore, we believe that policies aimed at the control of epidemics and the advancement of agricultural pests should be considered worldwide, to prevent the movement of microorganisms from the position of species, with ecological niches and functional traits to be studied, to the position of villains, generating incalculable impacts on health and the economy.

We must face the resurgence of diseases such as Zika and the appearance of superbugs as public health alerts, requiring emergency decision-making. Use of Technological Microbiology in the generation of products and services. Marker expression generates signals that may indicate the presence and concentration of analytes biosensors. Arrows of the same color inside the bacterium signal the same pathway. Not only biodiversity but also the unique nature and the biosynthetic capacities under specific environmental conditions make microorganisms the probable candidates to solve particularly complex environmental problems, such as the biodegradation of xenobiotics, or even recurrent problems, such as the decomposition of garbage and waste piles produced daily in urban environments.

Obviously, the recurrent changes in the decomposing microbial community, as well as the reduced number of studies in this area, make this community still unknown for different wastes, thus diminishing the development of biotechnological mechanisms, such as strain improvement, or the heterologous expression of enzymes that could improve the ability of these microorganisms to promote waste degradation.

This is a challenge to be faced by Technological Microbiology in the coming years. These new genes may be incorporated by recombinant technology into biologically known species, such as E. To date, molecular strategies have advanced by establishing heterologous expression systems for the production of valuable industrial compounds, such as biofuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, enzymes, and food ingredients.

However, Technological Microbiology has obstacles to overcome, and these obstacles extend beyond the continuous search for unconventional microbial species with valuable metabolic properties. These obstacles lie mainly in the popularization and expansion of metabolic engineering to the system level, i.

Most of the time, the products and processes generated by systems biotechnology are expensive and of little benefit when implemented on a large scale. Thus, only in-depth research in this area could result in more complex and efficient microbial factories.

LV conceived this article, reviewed the existing literature, participated in writing, and created the figures. LB participated in writing and critically reviewed all content. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Front Microbiol. Published online May Luciana C. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Reviewed by: Daniel M. Vitorino, rb. This article was submitted to Food Microbiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology. Received Feb 22; Accepted Apr The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.

No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Over thousands of years, modernization could be predicted for the use of microorganisms in the production of foods and beverages.

Keywords: biotechnology, food microbiology, biopolymers, plant growth-promoting microorganisms, environmental microbiology, biofactories. Introduction The history of the use of biotechnological techniques by humanity is confounded by the history of the establishment of microbiology as a science. Open in a separate window. Food Technological Microbiology Despite the application of biotechnological techniques to the food-processing industry and the agroindustry, which occurred prior to the technological advances of the s, the current trend incorporates the use of genetically modified microorganisms or even the use of enzymes, dyes, and other compounds obtained from microbial metabolism with the aim of improving productivity, enhancing organoleptic characteristics, or even attributing new nutritional functions to certain foods.

Agricultural Technological Microbiology Recently, the interest in microorganisms has focused on compounds with pesticidal activity, mainly herbicidal, insecticidal, and nematicidal. Chemical and Fuel Technological Microbiology Obtaining chemicals such as organic acids via microbial activity is very promising, especially if it is thought to occur from renewable carbon sources.

Environmental Technological Microbiology A large variety of microorganisms, including heterotrophic or autotrophic aerobic bacteria, actinomycetes, fecal coliforms, and thermophiles, as well as yeasts and other fungi, have been reported in solid waste composting processes Beffa et al.

Medical Technological Microbiology The participation of microorganisms in the generation of medical products or services involves four distinct aspects: 1 biocontrol of diseases, 2 production of vaccines, 3 production of antibiotics, and 4 production of biotherapeutics hormones, biomaterials, and others.

Materials Technological Microbiology The application of biotechnological techniques to microbiology has also made it possible to obtain a great diversity of biomaterials and biosensors.

Author Contributions LV conceived this article, reviewed the existing literature, participated in writing, and created the figures. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Aaby P. Non-specific effects of standard measles vaccine at 4. BMJ : c Application of mycorrhizal technology for improving yield production of common bean plants.

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Metabolic and physiological changes induced by plant growth regulators and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and their impact on drought tolerance in Cicer arietinum L. Spores are specialised structures with a protective coat that shields them from harsh environmental conditions such as drying out and high temperatures.

They are so small that between — could fit on a pin head. Spores are similar to seeds as they enable the fungus to reproduce. Wind, rain or insects spread spores. They eventually land in new habitats and if conditions are right, they start to grow and produce new hyphae. Macroscopic filamentous fungi also grow by producing a mycelium below ground. They differ from moulds because they produce visible fruiting bodies commonly known as mushrooms or toadstools that hold the spores.

The fruiting body is made up of tightly packed hyphae which divide to produce the different parts of the fungal structure, for example the cap and the stem. Gills underneath the cap are covered with spores and a 10 cm diameter cap can produce up to million spores per hour.

Yeasts are small, lemon-shaped single cells that are about the same size as red blood cells.